Film
Photograph by nlannon Flickr.
Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. The arrival Film of internet-based video outlets such as YouTube and Veoh has further changed the film making landscape in ways that are film still to be determined. An open content film is much like an independent film, but it is produced through open collaborations; its source material is available under a license which is permissive enough to allow other parties to create fan fiction or derivative works, than a traditional copyright.
However, the field of independent animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously. As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for photography.
When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). More recent analysis spurred by Jacques Lacan s psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de Saussure s semiotics among other things has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others.
Dedicated theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Motion pictures” or Moving pictures are films and movies.
Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film. James Monaco wrote a classic text on film theory titled How to Read a Film .
For example, when there is a live musical accompaniment to a silent film. The first year is taken up with development.
In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue
casino free bonus codes and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result. It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films.
There is a trend in Hollywood towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by Warner Bros. Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer.
Generating such a film is very labor intensive
aztec riches casino review and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped up the process. File formats like GIF, QuickTime, Shockwave and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet. Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. Light is inverted through a small hole or lens from outside, and projected onto a surface or screen, creating a moving image, but it is not preserved in a recording. In the 1860s, mechanisms for producing two-dimensional drawings in motion were demonstrated with devices such as the zoetrope, mutoscope and praxinoscope.
Caterers (known in the film industry as craft services ) are usually
intertops casino not considered part of the crew. Film stock consists of transparent celluloid, acetate, or polyester base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed.
The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication. The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film.
Various New Wave movements (including the French New Wave, Indian New Wave, Japanese New Wave and New Hollywood) and the rise of film school educated independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Examples are recordings of lectures and experiments, or more marginally, a film based on a classic novel. Film may be propaganda, in whole or in part, such as the films made by Leni Riefenstahl in Nazi Germany, US war film trailers during World War II, or artistic films made under Stalin by Eisenstein.
Film sequels may even be released first, e.g. While the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually as methods evolved making it more practical and cost effective to produce natural color films.
Fan filmmakers have traditionally been amateurs, but some
Littlewoods online bingo of the more notable films have actually been produced by professional filmmakers as film school class projects or as demonstration reels. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives.
The pictures were shown at a variable speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second, depending on how rapidly the crank was turned. A release is the distribution and often simultaneous screening of a film.
Crew are distinguished from cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. Griffith in The Birth of a Nation (1914) and Intolerance (1916) .
Sales refers to tickets sold at a theater, or more currently, rights sold for individual showings. Previews are sometimes used to judge audience reaction, which if unexpectedly negative, may result in recutting or even refilming certain sections (Audience response). Trailers or previews are film advertisements for films that will be exhibited in the future at a cinema, on whose screen they are shown.
Director Ingmar Bergman famously said, , the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream. Examples of the language are a sequence of back and forth images of one actor s left profile speaking, followed by another actor’s right profile speaking, then a repetition of this, which is a language understood by the audience to indicate a conversation. The Oberammergau Passion Play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced.
The identity of the first theater designed specifically for cinema is a matter of debate; candidates include Tally s Electric Theatre, established 1902 in Los Angeles In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents). Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or feature film). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry. Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using short cuts in the animation process.
The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. The production values on these films are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases in similar genres, and indeed, some films that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are distributed through these markets. The movie theater pays an average of about 50-55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental fees. Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera.
Some claim that movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films.
Another example is zooming in on the forehead of an actor with an expression
online casino of silent reflection, then changing to a scene of a younger actor who vaguely resembles the first actor, indicating the first actor is having a memory of their own past. Parallels to musical counterpoint have been developed into a theory of montage, extended from the complex superimposition of images in early silent film to even more complex incorporation of musical counterpoint together with visual counterpoint through mise en scene and editing, as in a ballet or opera; e.g., as illustrated in the gang fight scene of director Francis Ford Coppola’s film, Rumble Fish. Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. Mass marketed action, horror, and comedy films tend not to be greatly affected by a critic s overall judgment of a film.
Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological effect called beta movement. The origin of the name film comes from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock) has historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures.
A DVD , videotape , video or vid is a digital reproduction of an analogue film, or a product with all of the elements of an analogue film but made in an electromagnetic storage medium. An independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a major movie studio.
W. On the other hand, critics from the analytical philosophy tradition, influenced by Wittgenstein, try to clarify misconceptions used in theoretical studies and produce analysis of a film s vocabulary and its link to a form of life. Film is considered to have its own language.
They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities. The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the process was invented. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials.
By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete film scores being composed for major productions. The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I when the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood, typified most prominently by the great innovative work of D.W. Film encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of film as an art form, and the motion picture industry.
However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies which were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence. In the 1950s, when television became widely available, industry analysts In the 1990s and 2000s the development of digital DVD players, home theater amplification systems with surround sound and subwoofers, and large LCD or plasma screens enabled people to select and view films at home with greatly improved audio and visual reproduction. Despite the rise of all new technologies, the development of the home video market and a surge of online copyright infringement, 2007 was a record year in film that showed the highest ever box-office grosses.
Much terminology later used in film theory and criticism applied, such as mise en scene (roughly, the entire visual picture at any one time). A short is a film that is not as long as a feature length film, usually screened with other shorts, or preceding a feature length film.
That practice did not last long, because patrons tended to leave the theater after the films ended, but the name has stuck. The more involved the production, the more significant each of the steps becomes.
When these images are shown rapidly in succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The following icons mean film - a candle and bell , as in the films Tarkovsky, of a segment of film stock, or a two faced Janus image, and an image of a movie camera in profile. Widescreen and Cinemascope refers to a larger width to height in the frame, compared to an earlier historic aspect ratios.
Communication between production and crew generally passes through the director and his/her staff of assistants. A viewing is a watching of a film.
These fields may further create derivative fields, such as a movie review section in a newspaper or a television guide. The viewer cannot see the flickering between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed.
The silver screen refers to classic black and white films before color, not to contemporary films without color. The expression Sight and Sound , as in the film journal of the same name, means film . Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. Films are made up of a series of individual images called frames.
For example, a book titled How to Read a Film would be about the aesthetics or theory of film, while Lets Go to the Movies would be about the history of entertaining movies. Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation.
These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as magic lanterns) and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers. Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production and style of film.
The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white, but as color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color as essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-1960s. Stock widths and the film format for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints. Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16? frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown).
Rather than having their works published in newspapers or appear on television, their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. A common name for film in the United States is movie, while in Europe the term cinema is preferred.
Naturally the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect, and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film animation. With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Andre Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that film s artistic essence lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to realist theory.
Fan films vary tremendously in length, from short faux-teaser trailers for non-existent motion pictures to rarer full-length motion pictures. When it is initially produced, a feature film is often shown to audiences in a movie theater or cinema. This line of work is more often known as film theory or film studies.
Poor reviews will often doom a film to obscurity and financial loss. The impact of a reviewer on a given film s box office performance is a matter of debate. Already by 1917, Charlie Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars. From 1931 to 1956, film was also the only image storage and playback system for television programming until the introduction of videotape recorders. In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood.
The second year comprises preproduction and production. For prestige films such as most dramas, the influence of reviews is extremely important.
Commercial versions of these machines were coin operated. By the 1880s the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these moving picture shows onto a screen for an entire audience. Fields of academic study have been created that are derivative or dependent on the existence of film, such as film criticism, film history, divisions of film propaganda in authoritarian governments, or psychological on subliminal effects of a flashing soda can during a screening.
Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. In general, these works can be divided into two categories: academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in newspapers and other media. Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases.
Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on film. Independent filmmaking often takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema and the movies. Preceding film by thousands of years, plays and dances had elements common to film: scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, and scores.
A preview is a screening in advance of the main release. Hollywood may be used either as a pejorative adjective, shorthand for asserting an overly commercial rather than artistic intent or outcome, as in too Hollywood , or as a descriptive adjective to refer to a film originating with people who ordinarily work near Los Angeles. Expressions for Genres of film are sometimes used interchangeably for film in a specific context, such as a porn for a film with explicit sexual content, or cheese for films that are light, entertaining and not highbrow. Any film may also have a Sequel , which chronologically portrays events following those in the film. The Academy Awards (also known as the Oscars ) are the most prominent film awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits. There is also a large industry for educational and instructional films made in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts. Derivative academic Fields of study may both interact with and develop independently of filmmaking, as in film theory and analysis.
Film production can therefore take as little as one person with a camera (or without it, such as Stan Brakhage s 1963 film Mothlight), or thousands of actors, extras and crewmembers for a live-action, feature-length epic. The necessary steps for almost any film can be boiled down to conception, planning, execution, revision, and distribution. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumieres quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses.
Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish. Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of filmmaking; many films have large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner s Waterworld. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality.
When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. Many expected film to suffer as a result of the effects listed above but it has flourished, strengthening film studio expectations for the future. Find more about Film on Wikipedia s sister projects: .
Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color films, due to their high decay rates; black and white films on safety bases and color films preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage. Some films in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in television production. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision — see also videodisc), and Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies.
Despite this, critics have an important impact on films, especially those of certain genres. Medium-to-large crews are generally divided into departments with well defined hierarchies and standards for interaction and cooperation between the departments.
This technology required a person to look into a viewing machine to see the pictures which were separate paper prints attached to a drum turned by a handcrank. Film refers to the media onto which a visual art is shot, and to this end it may seem improper for a digital originating work to be referred to as a film and the action of shooting as filming, and yet these terms are still used.
These sound films were initially distinguished by calling them talking pictures , or talkies. The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of so-called natural color. In a typical production cycle of a Hollywood-style film, these main stages are defined as: This production cycle usually takes three years.
A feature length film , or feature film , is of a conventional full length, usually 60 minutes or more, and can commercially stand by itself without other films in a ticketed screening. Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or direct-to-video movies.
Around the turn of the twentieth century, films began developing a narrative structure by stringing scenes together to tell narratives. Cinema either broadly encompasses both films and movies, or is roughly synonymous with “Film”, both capitalized when referring to a category of art.
An independent is a film made outside of the conventional film industry. A screening or projection is the projection of a film or video on a screen at a public or private theater, usually but not always of a film, but of a video or DVD when of sufficient projection quality. Talkies refers to early movies or films having audible dialogue or analogue sound, not just a musical accompaniment.
Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie film scene in the late 20th and early 21st century. On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew. Movies more often refers to entertainment or commercial aspects, as where to go for fun on a date.
A double feature is a screening of two independent, stand-alone, feature films. The term trailer comes from their having originally been shown at the end of a film programme.
It was started by Ricciotto Canudo s The Birth of the Sixth Art. Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of film, and then run through a projector. While motion picture films have been around for more than a century, film is still a relative newcomer in the pantheon of fine arts.
They may also be works of political protest, as in the films of Wajda, or more subtly, the films of Andrei Tarkovsky. The same film may be considered educational by some, and propaganda by others, such as some of the films of Michael Moore. At its core, the means to produce a film depend on the content the filmmaker wishes to show, and the apparatus for displaying it: the zoetrope merely requires a series of images on a strip of paper. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen.
The development of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. The third year, post-production and distribution. The bigger the production, the more resources it takes, and the more important financing becomes; most feature films are not only artistic works, but for-profit business entities. A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company, employed during the production or photography phase, for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture.
Another example is audience participation films, as at a midnight movies screening of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, where the audience dresses up in costume from the film and loudly does a karaoke-like reenactment along with the film. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well.
Moving visual and aural images were not recorded for replaying as in film. The camera obscura was pioneered by Alhazen in his Book of Optics (1021), and later near the year 1600, it was perfected by Giambattista della Porta. When the purpose is primarily educational, a film is called an educational film .
Also, the studios rarely produce films with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles. Before the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film. But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly. Some studios save color films through the use of separation masters — three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the Technicolor process).
Most independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution. A road movie can refer to a film put together from footage from a long road trip or vacation. Film is used for education and propaganda.
Murnau, and Fritz Lang,in many ways inspired by the meteoric war-time progress of film through Griffith, along with the contributions of Charles Chaplin, Buster Keaton and others, quickly caught up with American film-making and continued to further advance the medium. Sub-industries can spin off from film, such as popcorn makers, and toys.
Trailers are now shown before the film (or the A movie in a double feature program) begins. Film may be combined with performance art and still be considered or referred to as a “film”. The crew interacts with but is also distinct from the production staff, consisting of producers, managers, company representatives, their assistants, and those whose primary responsibility falls in pre-production or post-production phases, such as writers and editors.
Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, such as Mumbai-centered Bollywood, the Indian film industry s Hindi cinema which produces the largest number of films in the world. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films.
Like independent filmmaking, open source filmmaking takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. A fan film is a film or video inspired by a film, television program, comic book or a similar source, created by fans rather than by the source s copyright holders or creators. Sub- industries of pre-existing industries may deal specifically with film, such as product placement in advertising. Most people use film and movie interchangeably.
However in the 1920s, European filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein, F. Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photo-play and flick.
Silent films need not be silent, but are films and movies without an audible dialogue, though they may have a musical soundtrack. Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras — allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design — allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large blimps to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses, allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action.
This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized by Hanna-Barbera, and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television. Although most animation studios are now using digital technologies in their productions, there is a specific style of animation that depends on film. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as trailers or The Twenty ). Historically, all mass marketed feature films were made to be shown in movie theaters.
It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow. These film critics attempt to come to understand how film and filming techniques work, and what effect they have on people.
Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful method for educating — or indoctrinating — citizens. Technologies such as DVDs, FireWire connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere Pro, Sony Vegas and Apple s Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Apple s Final Cut Express and iMovie, and Microsoft s Windows Movie Maker make movie-making relatively inexpensive. Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized.
Other than acting, the crew handles everything in the photography phase: props and costumes, shooting, sound, electrics (i.e., lights), sets, and production special effects. Early motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic techniques. Ignoring Dickson s early sound experiments (1894), commercial motion pictures were purely visual art through the late 19th century, but these innovative silent films had gained a hold on the public imagination.
Before the 1970s, there were double features ; typically, a high quality A picture rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a B picture of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Film preservation of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue).
Formalist film theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim, Bela Balazs, and Siegfried Kracauer, emphasized how film differed from reality, and thus could be considered a valid fine art. Star Wars Episode IV. A preview performance refers to a showing of a movie to a select audience, usually for the purposes of corporate promotions, before the public film premiere itself.
A hopeful director is almost never given the opportunity to get a job on a big-budget studio film unless he or she has significant industry experience in film or television. A showing is a screening or viewing on an electronic monitor.
Performance art where film is incorporated as a component is usually not called film, but a film, which could stand-alone but is accompanied by a performance may still be referred to as a film. The act of making a film can, in and of itself, be considered a work of art, on a different level from the film itself, as in the films of Werner Herzog. Similarly, the playing of a film can be considered to fall within the realm of political protest art, as in the subtleties within the films of Tarkovsky. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987).
An 1878 experiment by Eadweard Muybridge in the United States using 24 cameras produced a series of stereoscopic images of a galloping horse, arguably the first motion picture, though it was not called by this name. Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer.
However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Film is more often used when considering artistic, theoretical, or technical aspects, as studies in a university class.
Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as motion pictures .
Yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance. Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world.
Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st century. Film theory seeks to develop concise and systematic concepts that apply to the study of film as art. Films (also referred to as movies or motion pictures) are produced by recording images from the world with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or visual effects. Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.
